Fire and Emergency Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Fire and Emergency Management - Research Paper Example History There is a rich history that comes with the use of both the ISO grading system and the standards of coverage. The ISO grading system is actually adopted version of the fire suppression rating schedule (FSRS). The FSRS had been used as an independent rating system for several years in selected States until the need to ensuring that there is a global standardization of the activities of the fire and emergency service was brought up (ISO, 2014). Meanwhile, the insurance service office (ISO) had been functioning as an internationally recognized body that was responsible for setting standards of operation for various industries across the globe. To ensure that the rating schedule used for the purposes of fire and emergency fighting was at par with what was internationally recognized, the rating schedule was merged with the ISO standards to form what is today referred to as the ISO grading system of fire fighting. The history behind the standards of coverage can however be traced to very specific fire and emergency agencies across the country. This is because when the use of the standards of coverage started as an assessment system, it was only certified and used by the International Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC). These fire chiefs were the ones who ensured that within the limit of the agencies that managed, there was a standard that defined the way they operated and responded to fire.

To What Extent is it Justifiable to Deviate from Fundamental Essay

To What Extent is it Justifiable to Deviate from Fundamental Principles of Criminal Law by Creating Driving Offences of Strict Liability, in the Interests of Maintaining Road Safety - Essay Example Without an iota of doubt, it can be said that the concept of law, and for that purpose criminal law, has come to find a midpoint between these two schools of thoughts by setting principles that both give freedom to people to behave as individual beings and also protect the interest of other people. Typical examples of such rules and regulations that can be identified as directly catering for both the freedom of the bearer and the interest of the holder are driving laws on the possession of insurance and valid driver’s license by car users. Such laws are in place to ensure that as much as people have the freedom to drive any car of their choice, they also have the needed training and security that will put other road users at safety. Notwithstanding the presence of such road user laws, which have been inculcated into existing criminal laws, there are studies and case laws that suggest increases in driving offenses and road user related offenses. This essay has therefore been written to hold a debate on the justification in deviating from fundamental principles of criminal law to create driving offenses of strict liability that will be in place with the interest of maintaining road safety. There are a number of thematic legal arguments that can be developed from the question under discussion. These are considered thematic legal arguments because they seem to raise issues that could be given different legal interpretations, an analysis of which can lead to a successful conclusion on the justification of deviating from principles of criminal law by creating driving offenses of strict liability in the interest of maintaining road safety. These thematic legal arguments have thus been discussed as follows.

Chechnya and Russia conflict Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Chechnya and Russia conflict - Research Paper Example However, the collapse of the Soviet Union allowed for separatist groups within Chechnya to place a renewed emphasis and focus upon independence; thereby drawing the Russian Federation to act as a means of protecting the sovereignty the sovereignty of its newly redefined borders. Chechnya naturally refers to the geographic region within Dagestan that represents and ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse people. Whereas incorporation within the Russian Empire and subsequent Soviet Union had provided a great deal of commonality with regards to the vast geographic areas that could be defined as Russian or Soviet, Chechnya exhibited a strong will to independence from the time that it was first colonized up until the present. Accordingly, this region has become a flashpoint for both independence and radical Islam within Russia’s southern border. Whereas there are many other trouble spots within Dagestan and the southern Caucasus, Chechnya has become the focal point of these due to its strong cultural traditions and continual resistance to whatever Empire or Federation seeks to define it a given time. The pro-unification Chechen government refers to something of a puppet regime that was set up by the government of Vladimir Putin upon the conclusion of the Second Chechen War. Headed by Akhmad Kadyrov, the pro–unification government naturally sought a greater degree of integration within the Russian Federation. In such a way, the Russian Federation was able to utilize a pseudo-– democratic process to seek to ease tensions within the region. However, Akhmad Kadryov was assassinated by a bomb blast in 2004.3 His assassination prompted Moscow to promote his son Ramzan Kadyrov to represent the pro—unification Chechen government. The degree of success that this process has been able to integrate with regards to revolutionary violence within Chechnya has been marked. Although violent repression still continues to exist, the region has experienced a great deal of growth and rebuilding of formerly leveled cities have helped to integrate individuals within the framework of society. Although there are many who continue to push back against the pro—unification Chechen government, it exhibits a great deal of influence and provides the Russian Federation the level of power that has not been seen within Chechnya since the collapse of the former Soviet Union.4 Naturally, representing the flip side of this are the separatist rebels. The separatist rebels are drawn from a wide variety of backgrounds, cultures, and degree of appreciation and adherence to Islam. Ultimately, the separatist rebels failure can be seen as a function of the fact that they do not have a solitary voice. In such a way, the separatist rebels exhibit a weakness that is been able to be exploited by the Russian Federation as a means of subverting and subduing the movement that they represent. Regardless of this splintered nature, elements of the separatist rebels continue to promote radical revolution and ask of violence against both military and civilian assets of the Russian Fe deration. Naturally, in order to understand the situation, one cannot and should not discount the role that religion plays. Whereas the Russian Federation is almost exclusively Eastern Orthodox, Chechnya and other areas within Dagestan and the South Caucasus are exclusively Islam. Although individuals within the rebel movements of Chechnya cannot and should not be considered as solely motivated by radical interpretations Islam, the fact that matter is that Islam

Motorola in china case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Motorola in china case study - Essay Example China, represented a very significant market for Motorola in terms of manufacturing and research. According to the company sources, Motorola was successful in the Chinese market due to its understanding of the market, the people and the strategies it adopted. In 1978, Motorola established its Beijing office, then in 1992 it developed a makeshift plant in Tianjin to manufacture paging devices. In 2003, the company was regarded as the most successful foreign company in China, courtesy of its adoption of a four-point strategy which as follows: In managing success in its new environment, Motorola developed a new 2+3+3 strategy, which it used to create and sustain its competitive advantage. The numbers in the strategy represented goals that the company had developed in the process of achieving its success. The strategy was developed, following the need to consolidate on its market returns that had been found to be as follows, In this new strategy, the first â€Å"2† represented two goals, which included creating a reliable R&D centre and a successful manufacturing company worldwide. The second â€Å"3† in the strategy included the company succeeding in three main areas, that is, trunking systems, broadband creation of semiconductors. The final â€Å"3† showed goals that the company was willing to achieve by 2006. These goals were, increasing the value of its particular yearly productions to about $10 billion, increasing its investments up to $10 billion as well as purchasing trading components of the same amount. One of the important market entry strategies that the company had was an effective understanding of the Chinese market (Edmonds, 2000). Motorola Company had to take time in order to study and understand the Chinese people, thereby devising market growth and development strategies that effectively articulated their needs. In any market, the ability to succeed and develop

Contrasting Differences in Family Life in USA and Mexico Essay Example for Free

Contrasting Differences in Family Life in USA and Mexico Essay The family is the basic unit of any particular society or community. It is therefore imperative that for the society to exist the family has to be there to produce members into the community. The community or national character any particular country is basically determined by the nature of the family values. An individual is shaped in the early ages by the family. In the contemporary society there are increased diversity changes in the family a characteristic of the many changes in culture, political, economic, social, and psychological and even the environment. The content definition of has not been agreed upon because of the great changes that are so accommodating. In the previous many years the family was considered as the people who are related by blood. This definition based on the kinship ties has been revoked due to the influence of many forms of families which has stripped off the family its actual definition. For instance there can husband and wife who do not have any kinship ties and they go ahead to adopt children. Another case that has changed such a definition of the family based on kinship ties is the increasing number of intermarriage within the context of race or ethnicity. This brings out a mixture of offspring and therefore it is difficult to trace the family bonds based on kinship ties. The issue of who is next to kin is no longer important in the current families. The most common aspect in the current families is the bonding based on mutual understanding. The many changes of husband and wife have been changed by the introduction of lesbianism and gay. These try to go against the grain of opposite gender type of marriage. The concept of marriage has changed from opposite gender type of marriage to a mixture of gay, lesbianism and opposite gender marriages. These are some of the dynamisms that are facing the contemporary families. This paper shall give an indebt analysis of the family, the changes in roles and functions of the families and the general effects of such changes to the contemporary families. A close reference and examples shall be drawn from the US and Mexico, the countries that border each other geographically. The contrasting differences I n family issues shall be pointed out clearly. Family life in the United States The family relationship in the United States has undergone several transformations due to the effect of globalization. Race and ethnicity are the most significant factors in shaping the variety of values, attitudes and behaviour amongst the families in the United States. There are a number of changes in families in the United States. These changes range from political, social, economic, and psychological to spiritual. The social dislocations have given rise to new ideas and values especially there is increased individualism among the members of the community. In the US there increased diversity in the organizational structures. There are many cases of divorce and separation in the United Stated which has grabbed the family the unity and love that is supposed to be enjoyed. Most the single families that are common in the US are as a result of divorce and remarriage due to greater democratization. (Hines Morrison, 2005) Cultural diversity in the US is accounting for the many different types of families that have emerged in the recent past. The United States constitutes almost all races and ethnic groups in the world. For this reason there are diverse cultural values as a resulting of this contact. The factor that there are free intermarriages between these diverse races and ethnic groups has made the US to have diverse cultural values which transcend the native culture. The immigrants who move to the United State try to maintain their native language despite the fact that they are forced to learn the official language of the United States, which is English. The immigrants from Spanish speaking countries (Hispanic) when they move to the United States they try to maintain their languages. The culture of the people is usually transmitted through language and due to the numerous languages in the United States there exists different cultures. This means that there are very many family clusters formed through the sharing of the languages. For instance most of the Hispanic immigrants have formed family clusters in the sides of Florida. The black American speaks a variety of English as they identify themselves as belonging or originating from one family. These disparities have affected the notion of the family because these people are allowed to mix freely with people from different cultures. The concept of the family in the United States is changing even the more during the advent of the green card where people from different pasts acquire citizenship. Many people from different races and ethnic groups have found their way to the US and as such most of them are allowed to move with their families. The nuclear family still remains an ideal source of the society in the United States. The United States families are characterized by the great social stratification. In the United the families are organized according to different classes. Among these classes there are great disparities in terms of economic value. The choice of families has not taken shift from mutual understanding to materials and resources. This has affected relationships from a sociological point of view. This issue of the class is a dominant phenomenon among the families in the United States as those who are rich wants to maintain the status quo. This is done through the inheritance that is passed within the nuclear families. The nuclear families in the United States are created and broken up and then reconstituted. This has led to the decline of family values which consequently affects the family patterns. This diversity in family pattern has been identified as the cause of problems such as violence, crime and drug use in the united state. The parents are usually very busy with their duties (United States, Congress, 1992). The increasing cases of divorce and separation in the United States have a negative effect on maintaining the ideal norms of the nuclear family value. The families that are exposed to values outside the parental domain are likely to deviate from norms. The human rights in the United States are considered fundamental. There is protection of the universal human right which is a recipe to the process of democratization. This the reason why the US government invest huge amount of money in education health and other basic sectors so as to enhance the promotion of the human rights among the citizens. The Family Life in Mexico Most people have preferred to live in Mexico for a variety of reasons such as social, political, economic and even good climatic reasons. Living in Mexico requires one to learn the Spanish language so as to increase effective communication. This is because the families are socialized in the Spanish language. The Mexican people are extremely warm and friendly as they are organized in smaller communities that come from the mutually intelligible families. This means that the socialization process is high since there tow much contact between the families. The family bonds are tightly held together and for this reason there is cultural uniformity. The society per se is integrated under common cultural values through the common language shared. Piped water is relatively inexpensive, but not always potable (drinkable). Decades of under-investment, combined with an attitude of impertinence towards paying water bills, has left Mexicos mains water system in poor condition. As a result, most people purchase bottled water, often in 20L containers. Bottled water is very expensive. Rents in Mexico can be higher than in equivalent-sized US towns or cities if the place is popular or fashionable, particularly places within easy reach of the US border. Mexico has a centralized economy: that is, most of the countrys economic activity revolves around. The Mexican pace of life is relatively slower than in the US Especially when the life in major cities is given consideration. The families in Mexico are closely tied as most of the families have time to attend to their families. There is a high degree of parental responsibility among the families. This transcends to greater heights of good values that the society enjoys. Mexico’s culture has a rich history in a consolidated family religion, people and tradition. The Mexican people are proud of their culture that they keep on passing from one generation to another. This is because there is little infusion of the foreign cultures. The family is the basic unit in Mexico and a cornerstone to the maintenance of the culture. The rate of socialization and interaction among these people is too high. It is a usual phenomenon to meet two or more families meeting for a common interest or for a special event. This part of the family function in Mexico, people in Mexico have free time to visit resort centers for the purpose of relaxation which is not a common phenomenon in the United States, where people are too busy. (Heymann, 2006) The Mexican People are too religious which is a big contrast with the United States where people feel that they are in control; of their own life. A large number of people are Christian and they are usually committed to going to church. When you walk in the Mexican homes it is easy for you to see the religious images. In America people stay a non-religious life thus an effect of religious intermingling that has made it difficult for the people to which religious practice to adopt. Thus they resign from subscribing to any of the religious practice. The social stratification is not prevalent in the Mexican family as it is in the United States; people are seeking for money the Mexican people strive for titles. The professionals in Mexico prefer to be addressed with the titles that they deserve. This is as a result of the traditional emphasis given to the tittles within the family domain. The economic living standards in Mexico are slightly lower than in the United State. There are many poor people in Mexico than in the United States. The impact of these high levels of poverty in Mexico has necessitated the immigration of most Mexican families to the United States in search of better jobs and pay of most illegal immigrants from Mexico have gotten their way into the United States through the Mexican borders. These immigrants have settled in cities such as Florida. Working in the United States gives them better pay. This aspect of brain drain is lowering the general development of the families in Mexico as most of the people move leaving behind other family members Basically the cost of living in Mexico is lower than that of the US particularly for agricultural produce. Other sectors such as transport and communication are also lower in Mexico than I n the United States. Other utilities as electricity are more expensive compared to the United State. Working families in the United States, observing how parents struggled to find a balance between caring for children and earning a decent income. When parents split and one of the parents went from Mexico to the United States and was no longer available to give the necessary care, families suffer. What significantly exacerbates the problem is when the borders are so tight that they prevent families from reuniting. This has been a common phenomenon when the immigrants are not given the opportunity by the America to even visit their families in back home in Mexico. (Poole M. et al, 1993) Globalization of the economy created increased pressure for workers to accept lower labor standards, accept lower wages, longer hours, fewer benefits, and less paid leave. Both Nations likewise feel pressure from economic globalization not to implement family-friendly policies, such as paid leave for illness or when a child is sick, or paid parental leave. And that leaves working families struggling to balance work and their care-giving duties. The globalization process has affected families in both Mexico and United States economy was transforming the relationship between work and care-giving in similar ways everywhere. Globalization has forcing both countries to at a very high pace as far as labor standards and social policies are concerned hence leaving working parents with less and less time to raise their children. Parents work has shifted markedly around the world and that goes for every region. The child rearing process has been left in the hands of maids who offer supportive care while the parents are away working till late hours of the day. Men in particular have been moving away from one place to another in search of better jobs especially in various industries. Globalization has made men and women to work day and night and this has made them move away from their homes to go work in various places. A good example is that of outsourcing where people work in shifts where some work during the day and others at night. Women, likewise, have moved into the paid labor force and away from the home. From the period between 1960 and 2000 the number of women in the labor force went from 26 to 38 percent in America. The percentage of women in the workplace has increased both in the United States and Mexico. This has adversely affected the family care services that were provided by the women while their men were working in various sectors. This is a result of civilization which been brought about by the factors such as education, religion, work, urbanization among others. These factors have changed the various roles that were supposed to be executed by the family so as to prepare an individual to be a responsible member of the society. (Cecil, 1992) What has happened is that the world has seen women get better job opportunities which has assisted then them raise income to cater for their families. The increased number of single parent families has made it possible for the women to struggle to get money for rearing their families. While this is was going on there is also massive urbanization occurring all across the world. Thats not necessarily a bad thing, as people who move from very poor rural areas to urban areas often get better jobs, and become less dependent on, for instance, a good rain to feed their families. (Rowntree, Lewis, Price Wyckoff, 2006). References Hines D. A. , Morrison K. (2005) Family Violence in the United States: Defining, Understanding, and Combating. Sage Publisher. Heymann J. (2006) Forgotten Families: Ending the Growing Crisis Confronting Children and Working Parents in the Global Economy. Oxford University Press Poole M. et al (1993) Family: Changing Families, Changing Times. Allen Unwin publisher. Robinson, Cecil. (1992). No short journeys: The interplay of cultures in the history and Literature of the borderlands. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Rowntree L. , Lewis M. , Price M. and Wyckoff W. (2006). Diversity amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development. United States, Congress. House America’s (1992) Families: Conditions, Trends, Hopes, and Fears: Family policy. United States, Congress, House publisher.

Violence on Television is Harmful to Children Essay Example for Free

Violence on Television is Harmful to Children Essay Violence is fast becoming a common theme in television shows of today. Series that involve cops and other branches of the police force are continually multiplying on air. For this reason, it is inevitable for kids to be able to watch these kinds of shows. They are exposed to violence at a young age and this has been proven to not have a very good effect on them. Effects of TV Violence Violence these days does not only pertain to heinous crimes happening outside the walls of the house. Even beyond closed doors people are exposed to violence via the materials they read, the shows they see and listen to. Not only are adults exposed to these things, the children of the household are also exposed. These shows pose as a threat to their innocent minds. This is because their young minds might not be able to comprehend the reality from the show itself (TV Violence , 2010). According to studies conducted, most households always have their television sets on from morning to late evening. The worst part is that even childrens rooms have its own television set inside from which they may watch without the guidance of their parents. While watching TV violence does not make criminals out of children, findings show that the children who are often exposed to TV violence are those who fight kids at school or turn oyt to be bullies. The shows cloud childrens minds making them believe that bringing harm to others is not bad. It also makes the children believe that it is but natural for some people to become victims of bad habits or crimes (TV Violence , 2010). This is definitely not healthy. It can hinder the normal flow of their studies and may lead to early delinquency in the next school terms. Further studies analyzed,, indicated that the rate of children being exposed to violence on television shows have significantly increased in the in the last decade. From the year 1998 to this year. The statistics also indicated that about 10 percent of youth violence may be blamed on children being exposed to violence on television. These findings support the thesis that violence on television can only lead to harm of the childrens minds (Violence in Media, 2003). The children are driven to act aggressively or violently because most of violent shows presented on television do not show the truth behind the violent acts. It does not give the effect of the action. For instance, the crime movies show the protagonist being a very good shooter even of innocent people. Being a protagonist in the story, people commend his excellence in the field and neglect the reality that shooting people can cause lives and make the relatives of the victims aggrieved. Violent shows also do not imply how the law punishes the act. It only gives emphasis on the act itself and the machismo it can bring to the protagonist. More importantly, violence on television makes crimes look easier to be done than it really is. For these reasons, children are lured into emulating the actions despite the reality that they should not (Kaufman, 2004).

Utilitarian And Deontological Ethical Theories

Utilitarian And Deontological Ethical Theories Thesis: Despite both utilitarian ethical theory and deontological ethical theory can be applied usefully to the issue of stem cell research. I shall argue that utilitarian ethical theory is preferable, because it is most consistent with the considered moral judgments and can give most reasonable answers to the issue. Abstract The paper deals with the area of philosophical inquiry and discussion referred to as ethics or moral philosophy. As suggested by these terms, the primary focus of this inquiry area is about issues that emerge in moral or ethical situations, situations that pose questions regarding what we should or ought to do when the issue is not strictly a self-interest matter, but of right or wrong .For this case the issue is on controversy surrounding stem cell research. There are attempts to try to put some clarity of thought to the issue: This is to clearly define the language used to discuss it, to reveal the inference forms that underlie our thinking about it, and to justify and determine principles that can give guidance in solving these issue through bringing into consistency the best intuitions and thoughts on these matters. Background on Stem Cell Research Stem cell research has emerged to be one of the major issues dividing the religious and scientific communities around the globe. There is one central question with regards to the core of the issue: When does life begin? (Kristen et al, 313).To obtain reliable stem cells, either scientists need to use already conceived embryo or else clone an embryo using a cell from the patient body and a donated egg. Either way, scientists must destroy the embryo when harvesting an embryos stem cells. Despite that embryo may only have 4-5 cells, some religious leaders argue that destroying it is same as terminating human life. Inevitably, the issue is in the political arena. (Kristen et al, 313). Congress passed a rider to the federal appropriations bill in 1996, referred to as Dickey-Wicker amendment. Representatives Roger Wicker and Jay Dickey proposed abolishing the federal monies use for any research where a human embryo is destroyed or created. Federal monies are a primary funding source for stem cell research. Since then the amendment has been renewed every year. President George W. Bush, in 2001 restricted further the federal stem cell research. Bush stated in an executive order that federal funds may only be employed for research involving already established (only 22 cell lines) human embryonic stem cell lines. This restricted researchers from generating more embryonic stem cell lines for research. In 2009, an executive order issued, was issued by President Barack Obama to expand embryonic stem cell research. Obamas administration permitted embryonic stem cell research federal funding following conditions applied: The cell line was among the 22 cell lines that existed during the Bush administration or was generated from discarded embryos after the procedures of in vitro fertilization. The embryos donors were not paid in any way. The donors were fully aware that the embryos could be used for research purposes before giving consent. The political debate However, in political terms, at the heart of debate on stem cell is a battle over abortion but its with a twist. Yes, the cells are from embryos. And with regards to religious orthodoxy, an embryo is considered to be life. Infact, some pro-life advocates have not objected employing stem cells for research to what was done by Nazi doctors during World War II ( Maureen et al,29). But also the embryo cells hold great promise for many sick patients with their families. Furthermore, several embryos might otherwise be discarded unceremoniously. There are high political stakes, and those involved in the debate are obliged to review their position. Embryonic stem cells that come from the inner blastocyst (fertilized egg after four days of conception) are controversial ( Maureen et al,26). But while several pro-life advocates remain firm in their opposition to embryonic cells use for research, others including scientific community are in favor of research funding. High-profile activists, such as actor Michael J. Fox, with Parkinsons disease, appeared before subcommittees of congressional claiming that stem cell research should continue. The scientific debate We exactly dont know what stem cells can do for us; however, we do know that due to the fact that stem cells are undifferentiated, scientists may prompt them to whatever cell type. The cells can as well replace sick or damaged cells in an injured patient or in a patient with degenerative disease. The question is; where are scientists obtaining these cells? Until of recent, it was known that majority of various stem cells employed in research were obtained from embryos discarded (or excess) stored at in-vitro fertilization clinics. If potential parents make a decision of not having more children, they may be requested by scientists working with stem cells to donate embryos not needed for research. For the method that is most controversial, stem cells can be pulled from aborted fetuses by scientists. This can be after providing signed consent by the patient who previously decided to terminate her pregnancy. This is the most often highlighted procedure considered by pro-life activists who object stem cell research.( Maureen et al,28). For pro-life advocates, the moral cost of undertaking stem cell research supersedes any potential benefits. However, for scientists, the likelihood is both bewildering and awe-inspiring. Nobody denies the stem cell debate moral dilemma. Background on Utilitarian Ethical Theory. The utilitarian ethical theory is established on the capacity to predict actions consequences. According to a utilitarian, the choice which gives the greatest benefit to the majority is a correct choice ethically. One benefit of this ethical theory is that the utilitarian can compare similar predicted solutions and a point system is employed in the determination of more beneficial choice for the majority. This point system gives a rationale and logical argument for every decision and enables an individual to employ it on a case-by-case context (Postema et al, 56). There are two utilitarianism types, rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism. In act utilitarianism, an individual performs the acts which benefit the majority, regardless of societal constraints like laws and personal feelings. However, rule utilitarianism, is concerned with fairness. Hence takes into account the law. A rule utilitarian aims to benefit the majority but through the most just and fairest means available. Therefore, additional rule utilitarianism benefits are that it values justice as well as at the same time it includes beneficence (Ryan, 125). However, similarly to other ethical theories, both rule and act utilitarianism consists of numerous flaws. Inherent in both are the flaws related with future prediction. Despite persons can employ their life experiences to try to predict the outcomes, there is no one who can be sure that his predictions will be true. This can result to unexpected outcomes, hence it will make utilitarian appear unethical as time passes due to his choice never benefited the majority as he predicted (Ryan, 126).For instance, if an individual lights a fire to warm his friends, then later the fire burns down the house resulting from the soot in the chimney caught on fire, then now it seems the utilitarian chose an unethical decision. The outcome of unexpected house fire is taken to be unethical due to it never benefited his friends. Another assumption to be made by utilitarian is that he has the capacity to compare several forms of consequences against each other basing on similar scale. However, material gains comparison like money against intangible gains like happiness is not possible because their quality varies to such a bigger extent (Ryan, 129). Another failing that is found in utilitarianism is that it never allows supererogation existence. In other terms, persons needs to constantly behave so that the majority benefit despite the danger related to an act (Ryan, 127). As noted above, act utilitarianism is strictly concerned with maximum good achievement. With regards to this theory, the rights of an individual might be infringed upon for the sake of benefiting a greater population. In other terms, act utilitarianism always is never concerned with beneficence, justice or autonomy for a person if the individual oppression results to the solution that benefits a majority. Another instability source within act utilitarianism is experienced when a utilitarian encounters one variable conditions set and then experiences suddenly a change in those variables that makes her original decision to be changed. This indicates that an act utilitarian may be good to you at one moment then dislike you at the later moment due to the change of variables, hence no longer beneficial to the majority (Ryan, 124). Background on Deontological Ethical Theory The deontological theory states that persons need to stick to their duties and obligations when evaluating an ethical dilemma. This implies that an individual will follow her or his obligations to benefit another person or society because what is taken to be ethically correct is upholding ones duty (Freeman, 10). For example, often a deontologist will follow the law as well as keep his promises to a friend. Very consistent decisions can be made by a person who follows this theory because will be based on the set duties of an individual. Deontology gives a basis for special obligations and duties to particular people, like those within ones family. For instance, an older brother obligation may be to protect his little sister in crossing a busy road. This theory as well acknowledges those deontologists who exceed their obligations and duties, referred to as supererogation (Ellis, 859). For instance, if a train is hijacked and is with full of students and the demand of the hijackers is that one person should have to die in order for the rest to live, an individual who volunteers to die is exceeding her or his duty to the other students, hence supererogation act. Despite deontology has several positive attributes, it also has a number of flaws. One weakness with this theory is that there is no logical or rationale basis for deciding the duties of an individual. For example, a decision can be made by a businessman that it is his duty to be going for meetings on time. Despite this seems to be a noble duty, it is not known why the person decided to make this his duty. A similar scenario explains two other deontology drawbacks including the fact that duties of a person conflict sometimes, and that deontology is never concerned with other peoples welfare. For example, how is deontologist supposed to drive if he must be in the meetings on time and time is running late? Is he needed to speed, to uphold the law by breaking his duty to society, or is he required to arrive late to the meeting, to be on time by breaking his duty? This conflicting obligations scenario neither leads us to a clear resolution that is ethically correct nor does it protect ot her peoples welfare from the decision of deontologist. Because deontology is not based on each situation context, it never gives any guidance in a complex situation where there is conflicting obligations (Ellis, 860) Application of Act Utilitarianism In the avoidance of confusion, it is critical to clarify different issues which can be addressed from a utilitarian perspective. One of the issues, which is the primary focus in this paper, is the sensible moral value determination of an action in a moral situation which is controversy on stem cell research. This is a moral obligation question that is appropriate in deliberation: What is the right action among all alternative actions to perform in stem cell research controversy (moral situation)? From the act utilitarianism perspective, the answer is;The right action is the only one which will give the best probable consequences, as discussed earlier. Another different question that probably can be addressed from the perspective of act utilitarian is, moral responsibility: Is a moral agent morally accountable for the action already performed by him; is it logical to praise or blame the agent for their action. For instance, President George W. Bush, in 2001 restricted further, the federal stem cell research or Obamas administration permitted embryonic stem cell research federal funding. Basing on this, will they be responsible for their decision? The basis for such judgments will be considered in some greater detail. However, it should be noted here that from an act utilitarian perspective it is fallacious to determine the agents moral responsibility based on unavailable information present at the time they made their decision. However, it would not be fare to put blame on a moral agent for the consequences he/she could not probably foresee. Consequently, to determine moral responsibility from the perspective of act utilitarian it is crucial to make a judgment basing on available information at the time, and such a judgment made may be so different from the one that might be made from the privileged hindsight standpoint of what action was the right one to take. For instance, considering Stem cell research dilemma, it might be probably consistent upon act utilitarianism to come up with a judgment on hindsight that it is wrong to destroy embryo cells for the sake of stem cell research, but that the scientist need not to be blamed for taking the wrong action since they cant foresee the ultimate acti ons consequences. Now, with regards to moral deliberation issue, what must a moral agent do when he/she encounters a moral dilemma? The act utilitarianism answer is that the moral agents is required to do what is (basing on all available information and evidence) in their best judgment, the moral agent determines an action that is morally right, the action that will result to the best consequences for all. Therefore, moral judgment is a risky action. It is not possible to be sure in a given perfect foresight, of what the actions consequences will be. Still, we predict constantly the actions consequences, and it is believed that the reasonable predictions can be made basing on past experience. Invariably, due to the relative prediction uncertainty, moral judgment from the perspective of an act utilitarian includes considering the relative consequences probabilities of our actions. In certain cases, in the presence of accurate statistics, the probability mathematics can give a precise way of handling these issues. Hence, if a state legislature is considering whether to pass a bill that supports stem cell research, statistics indicating embryo destruction rate from the embryo donation as a function of the legal embryo donation can be used in the determination of the probability that the life cut short in embryo donation will increase by a certain amount if the donation limit is raised. In several moral situations, accurate statistics is not available; in this case, a moral agent will be required to rely on intuitive, less precise sense of probabilities (Frankena, 10). Despite intuitive probabilities assessments are imprecise; still they can be made reasonably basing on evidence available of past experience. It is sensible to judge, for instance, that the probability is greater to have lettuce available for purchase in the grocery than to say, imported Camembert cheese. Whether or not precise probability calculations are possible, derivative obligation is posed by act utilitarianism upon any moral agent to seek any and all evidence or information available that is relevant in the determination of the possible ones actions consequences, and consider in a conscientious and serious manner. Application of Rule Utilitarianism Rule utilitarianism widens the focus of ethical discussion and moral deliberation considerably when it is compared to act utilitarianism. The major concern here is not the limited consequences of specific acts of a persons moral agents, but the long-range and more encompassing consequences of social practices viewed by all moral agents in the society. Hence the idea is not what will take place if I do this and this, but what will result if everybody as a rule did this and this, as compared to other accepted practice forms. This moral issue (Stem cell research) raises a complication that may need attention when applying rule utilitarianism. In todays society, several persons believe, on the basis of traditional ethical perspective or religious convictions that human life is sacred. In such a case, to take or terminate any human life, even in brain death cases or embryo destruction is morally wrong. Individual with such views may be greatly aggrieved or distressed if passive euthanasia or embryo destruction for stem cell research were permitted in such cases. Must the rule utilitarian consider such moral sentiments as one probable negative consequence of allowing passive euthanasia or embryo destruction in such cases? What is strange with this issue, definitely, at this issue, it is that, sentiments are ones that result from moral perspective on ethical issue under consideration. It is not possible for a rule utilitarian to consistently rule out the consideration of any negative impact of certain rule implementation or practice in the society. Due to this, a rule utilitarian is restricted by their position to even take into the account the moral opinions of persons who might be opposed to such implementation. However, the crucial point to take into account from a rule utilitarian viewpoint is that it is not only the immediate implementations consequences of a particular social practice that should be considered, but also the long-range consequences. Moral opinions normally change with time, and usually, they change following major changes in social practice and policy. In the past, prior to the establishment of womens economic and political rights, several men, and infact, some women, had a belief that women need not be given equal rights in society as a matter of moral principle and traditional practice. No doubt such individuals were greatly disturbed by th e gradual womens rights advancement in society. But over time, such attitudes have considerably diminished. Today, few believe that it is objectionable morally for women to have same role in society; this is contrary to most individuals who are against women equal rights as it is a social injustice. And few may deny that the social and economic opportunities now open to women have benefited the womens lives, and society as well. Thus history provides us better reason in believing that when reasonable changes in social practices and policies are instituted, any negative feelings that may arise as a result of conservative moral perspective are relatively short-lived than those which are long-term benefits. Basing on this, concerns on negative moral opinions significantly diminish in rule utilitarian ethical evaluation. In summary, with regards to this rule utilitarianism, it should be noted that several points considered above regarding act utilitarianism application apply in a equall y to rule utilitarianism application as well. Also, as with act, in rule utilitarianism, predictions uncertainties must be dealt with inevitably, but in this case predictions regarding the impact of the social institution of rules. Also, in utilitarianism, such Uncertainties need to be dealt with through weighing the relative probabilities of uncertain outcomes. The rule utilitarian will as well presume that such assessments can be made sensible, because lawmakers evaluate routinely the probable institutions outcomes of socially adopted rules. In rule utilitarianism application, as with the theorys act formulation, the moral deliberation aim is to make the most intelligent and informed assessment of outcomes possible and moral decisions will be based on this assessment. Application of Universal Law Formulation First it is required to note a clear distinction between utilitarian theory and Kants theory: Kant argues that moral judgments made can be with greater certainty as compared with any utilitarian may consistently claim. This can be due to; as discussed earlier, utilitarian moral judgment is based on factual judgments regarding future consequences of current actions, and such judgments cant be made with certainty. On the other hand, Kant denies the idea that actions consequences are morally appropriate, hence moral judgment doesnt rely, with regards to his theory, on the predictions uncertainties. In fact, Kant claimed that moral judgment was a priori judgment instance, meaning, judgment that can be justified prior to or independently of empirical evidence, just as we normally believe that no empirical evidence is required to know that 2+2=4 is true. Hence, is not required to know anything empirically about where or when a a certain act will be performed, or what will be the consequences of the act, to offer a moral actions evaluation. But despite moral judgment is not based on Kants empirically known facts, in Kantian theory there is one major factual issue which should be resolved for the sake of determining the actions moral value. This is all relevant and sometimes, complex issue of maxim formulation of the moral agents action, because it is the maxim which determines action type that a moral agent does or should do. Kant gave no particular guidelines on the way one need to describe an action in the maxim form as moral judgment basis, but reasonable and clear guidelines can be made. First, because maxim is an actions rule adopted by the moral agent, it is supposed to be formulated normatively, but not descriptively, as an action guide. Hence, formulation of any maxim can be in a general form I (or one) should (or ought t o) do such and such. (Simpler and acceptable alternative to this form is critical, Do such and such.) This may seem to be strange, because as seen earlier, the maxim descriptively determines what the moral agent does or should do. Deontologists lack a lot of rules. In some situations, this offers a fair amount of freedom. Because their rules require or forbid only particular actions, other actions are there for them. A deontologist will never say, It is good to preserve the rain forest. After all, rain forest preservation all concerns consequences and this is not what a deontologist base on. So the deontologist will chop away the forest and not feel guilty for the act. Deontologists may say, respect the world God gave us and to respect the world may need rain forest protection but that may not be the reason why deontologists did so. The conflicting obligations scenario neither leads us to a clear resolution that is ethically correct nor does it protect other peoples welfare from the decision of deontologist. Because deontology is not based on each situation context, it never gives any guidance in a complex situation where there is conflicting obligations (Ellis, 857). In conclusion, deontologists are persons who freely decide to accept particular constraints and who choose what is right basing on the nature of the act itself. Some establish particular rules such as do not kill, keep your promises etc. and some follow Gods commandments or Kants categorical imperatives. They never evaluate consequences as a rule and in other cases they find themselves in very complicated situations. This is in contrary to utilitarian ethical theory that is established on the capacity to predict actions consequences. According to a utilitarian, the choice which gives the greatest benefit to the majority is a correct choice ethically. One benefit of this ethical theory is that the utilitarian can compare similar predicted solutions and a point system is employed in the determination of more beneficial choice for more people. This point system gives a rationale and logical argument for every decision and enables an individual to employ it on a case-by-case context. It is not possible for a rule utilitarian to consistently rule out the consideration of any negative impact of certain rule implementation or practice in the society. Due to this, a rule utilitarian is restricted by their position to even take into the account the moral opinions of persons who might be opposed to such implementation. Therefore, despite both utilitarian ethical theory and deontological ethical theory can be applied usefully to the issue of stem cell research. It is clearly evident that utilitarian ethical theory is preferable, because it is most consistent with the considered moral judgments and can give most reasonable answers to this issue. Philosophy can be of help in identifying the range of ethical conversations, methods and value systems which can be applied to a certain problem. But after clarifying these things, every individual is supposed to make his/her own personal decision on what to do, and then respond appropriately to the consequences. Uncertainties need to be dealt with through weighing the relative probabilities of uncertain outcomes. The rule utilitarian will as well presume that such assessments can be made sensible, because lawmakers evaluate routinely the probable institutions outcomes of socially adopted rules.